Rhetoric or Figure of Speech - The ornamentation of speech.

👉Introduction :

 Ornamentation and  beautification are the essential aspects of art. Speaking is an art and naturally ornamentation as well as  beautification has something to do in this field. A  speech can not be decorated by flowers or colour. Some figures are used for this purpose and these are called 'figure of speech'.

If we take notice intently, we would find that every human being applies his/her own style in expressing himself/herself.To express oneself effectively, impressively and beautifully  is an inherent quality of a man/woman. So a bit of rhetoric is latent in human beings. Literally,rhetoric means the art of orator.(The term rhetoric comes from the Greek word 'rhetor' that means a public speaker.)

The persuasive public speaking needs some 'figures of speech' which appeal in the mind of the listeners. These 'figures of speech' can easily enhance the effect of one's language. Quite interestingly, the term 'figure' comes from the Latin term 'figura' meaning the 'external form or shape of a thing'. It is like the rich external ornamental dress but not embellished externally in the speech ,it mingles in the language. However, 'figures of speech' makes a language remarkable and different from the other. To quote Prof. Bain," A figure of speech is a deviation from the plain and ordinary way of speaking for the sake of greater effect" 

👉Types of  'figures of speech' :

In English literature we find a great many varieties of  'figures of speech'  which are based on different levels and elements - some are based on Similarity, some on Contrast, some on Association, Imagination, Indirectness, sound and so on.  :

(1) Figures based on Similarity       :  * Simile * Metaphor * Allegory * Parable * Fable 

(2) Figures based on  Association    :  * Metonymy  * Synecdoche  * Hypallage  * Allusion

(3) Figures based on Difference       :  * Antithesis  * Epigram  * Climax  * Anti-climax

(4)  Figures based on Imagination    : * Personification * Apostrophe * Hyperbole 

(5)  Figures based on Indirectness    : * Innuendo * Irony * Periphrasis * Euphemism 

(6)  Figures based on Sound             : * Pun * Onomatopoeia * Alliteration * Assonance 

(7)  Figures based on Construction   : * Interrogation * Exclamation * Chiasmus * Zeugma

👉 Simile  (Figure based on Similarity ) 

 " The child looks like a flower "                          

  This is an example of  Simile.

  Simile is the explicit statement of similarity existing between two different things.

  In the given example the two different things are the 'child' and the 'flower'. Beauty is the point of similarity which is clearly stated here. So this is an  example of  Simile.

👉 Metaphor (Figure based on Similarity)

"The camel is the ship of desert."

This is an example of  Metaphor.

Metaphor is a figure of speech in which an implicit comparison existing between two different things is hinted only, not clearly stated.

In the given example the two different things are the 'camel' and the 'ship'. The point of comparison is that the camel is the main  means of transportation in desert, as the ship in the sea. The comparison is implied/hinted only, not clearly stated. So this is an example of Metaphor.

👉 Antithesis ( Figure based on Difference )

" United we stand, divided we fall "

This is an example of Antithesis.

Antithesis is a figure of speech in which two contrasted words or ideas are placed together in a balanced form for the sake of emphasis.

In the given example the two contrasted ideas, the effect of  'union' and that of 'division' are placed together in a balanced form to secure more emphasis. So, this is an example of Antithesis. 

👉 Epigram ( Figure based on Difference )

"Failure is the pillar of success"

This is an example of Epigram.

Epigram is a figure of speech in which we find a contradiction in the apparent meaning that causes a temporary shock but an underlying significance is revealed if we think deeply.

In the given example the apparent meaning is contradictory and shocking. It is right that a failure person finds his/her faults, corrects them, tries hard and ultimately bigger success comes. This is the deeper meaning underneath. So, this an example of Epigram. 

👉 Oxymoron (Figure based on Difference)

"Life is bitter sweet."

This is an example of Oxymoron.

Oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two contradictory words or ideas are placed side by side to enhance the effect of speech.

In the given example the contradictory words are 'bitter' and 'sweet'. The words are juxtaposed (paced side by side) and it makes the meaning of life more effective. So, this an example of Oxymoron. So, this an example of Oxymoron. 

👉 Climax (Figure based on Difference) 

" We will hear him, we will follow him, we will die with him." 

This is an example of Climax.

Climax is a figure of speech in which the words or ideas are arranged in an ascending order of importance or impressiveness.

In the given example the idea or action of 'hearing', 'following' and 'dying'  are arranged in an ascending order of importance or impressiveness. So this an example of Climax.

👉Anti-climax / Bathos (Figure based on Difference)

" She lost her husband, her children and her handkerchief." 

This is an example of  Anti-climax.

 Anti-climax is a figure of speech in which we find a sudden fall from the lofty  to the mean idea or thought in order to excite laughter.

In the given example the  sudden fall is from the words of intimate relationship 'husband' and 'children' to the unimportant word 'handkerchief. So, this an example of Anti-climax. 

👉 Metonymy ( Figure based on  Association)

"I have read Milton."

This is an example of Metonymy.

Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one thing is substituted for that of another and these two things remain loosely associated.

In the given example Milton means the writings of Milton. One thing (Milton) is substituted for that of another (work of Milton) and the association between these two things is loose. So, this is an example of Metonymy.

👉 Synecdoche  ( Figure based on  Association)

" Five hundred hands work in this factory."

This is an example of Synecdoche

 Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which the name of one thing is substituted for that of another and these two things remain closely associated.

In the given example the word 'hands' is used for 'workers'. One thing (hands) is substituted for that of another (workers) and the association between these two things is very close. So, this is an example of Synecdoche.

👉Hypallage / Transferred Epithet ( Figure based on  Association)

"The bellman's drowsy charm."

This is an example of  Hypallage / Transferred Epithet.

Hypallage / Transferred Epithet is a figure of speech in which an adjective of epithet  is transferred or shifted from the proper subject to another word with which the subject is associated in any way.

In the given example the adjective 'drowsy' is transferred from the proper subject 'bellman' to another word 'charm' with which the subject is associated. 

👉 Allusion ( Figure based on  Association)

 " Now we clap / Our hands, and cry, 'Eureka', it is clear.

This is an example of Allusion

Allusion  is a figure of speech in which we find some word or expression that recalls some well-known  or notable saying, writing, event or character of the past.

In the given example the word 'Eureka' reminds us the name of the great scientist and philosopher Archimedes who exclaimed with the word 'Eureka'. So, this is an example of Allusion.

👉 Personification (Figure based on Imagination)

" Proud be the rose, with rains and dews."

This is an example of  Personification.

Personification is a figure of speech in which nature or an inanimate object or an abstract idea is invested with the attribute of a living being.

In the given example the rose, an object of nature, is invested with the attribute of a living being with the help of the word 'proud'. The rose is made to behave like a human being. So, this is an example of Personification.

👉 Apostrophe (Figure based on Imagination)

 " Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll."

This is an example of  Apostrophe.

Apostrophe  is a figure of speech in which a short impassioned address is made to an absent or dead person or to an element of nature or to an inanimate object or to an abstract idea.

In the given example an impassioned address is made to the ocean which is a part of nature. So, this is an example of Apostrophe .

👉 Pathetic Fallacy (Figure based on Imagination)

" The river sighed  at the sorrow of the girl."

This is an example of  Pathetic Fallacy.

 Pathetic Fallacy is a figure of speech in which nature is represented as showing interest in the human matter or action, by sympathy or antipathy.

In the given example the river, a part of nature, is sighing for the sorrow of the girl. Nature shows interest in the human matter. So, this is an example of  Pathetic Fallacy.

👉 Hyperbole (Figure based on Imagination)

" I saw their chief tall as a rock of ice ; "

This is an example of Hyperbole.

Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which an exaggerated statement is made to present thing/s more or less than the real state.

In the given example the 'chief'  is compared with the tall rock of ice. It is really the over-colouring the matter or an exaggeration. So, this is an example of Hyperbole. 

👉 Irony (Figure based on Indirectness)

" He is delighted in the friendly act of insulting me."

This is an example of Irony.

Irony is a figure of speech in which the meaning of the sentence is very opposite or contrary of what is intended to be expressed and the purpose is to hurt someone.

In the given example the word 'friendly' is used to mean rudeness and enmity, the very opposite of its literal meaning. So,this is an example of Irony.

👉 Euphemism (Figure based on Indirectness)

" Alas ! he breathed his last on Sunday."

This is an example of Euphemism.

Euphemism is a figure of speech in which a harsh and disagreeable statement is softened and expressed in a pleasing and polite manner.

In the given example "he breathed his last" means ' he died'. Naturally, a harsh and disagreeable statement is softened and expressed in a  polite manner. So, this is an example of  Euphemism.

👉 Periphrasis / Circumlocution (Figure based on Indirectness)

"Sometimes too hot the eye of heaven shines."

This is an example of Periphrasis / Circumlocution.

Periphrasis / Circumlocution is a figure of speech in which a thing or idea is expressed in a roundabout way in stead of saying it directly.

In the given example "eye of heaven' means the 'Sun'. It is expressed in a roundabout way in stead of saying it directly. So this is an example of Periphrasis / Circumlocution. 

👉 Pun / Paronomasia (Figure based on Sound )

"When a woman loses her husband, she pines for a second."

This is an example of Pun / Paronomasia.

Pun / Paronomasia is a figure of speech in which we find a duplicity of sense under the unity of sound and it provokes laughter.

In the given example the expression  ' a second' bears two meaning :one is 'for a brief time' and the other meaning is 'for a second husband'. We fine the duplicity of sense under the unity of sound. So,this is an example of Pun / Paronomasia.

👉 Onomatopoeia (Figure based on Sound )

" The gathering swallows witter in the skies".

This is an example of Onomatopoeia.

Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which the sound of words is made to reflect their sense or echos the sense.

In the given example the sound of  the word 'twitter'  echoes its sense, the  chirping of the birds. So, this is an example of Onomatopoeia.

👉 Alliteration (Figure based on Sound )

"He bravely broached his boiling bloody breast."

This is an example of Alliteration . 

Alliteration is a figure of speech in which the same letter, sound or syllable is repeated at the beginning of successive or nearly successive words.

In the given example the same letter 'b' is repeated at the beginning of successive and nearly successive words 'bravely', 'broached', 'boiling', 'bloody' and 'breast.' So,this is an example of Alliteration . 

👉 Interrogation ( Figure based on Construction)

" Who is here so base that would be a bondman." 

This is an example of Interrogation . 

Interrogation  is a figure of speech in which a question is asked and a strong affirmation, often that of contrary, is implied in the very form of the question.

In the given example a question is asked, but the very form of the question implies a negative answer  that nobody likes to be a bondman. The answer is given in the question. So this is an example of  Interrogation.

👉 Hyperbaton / Inversion (Figure based on Construction)

"Much have I travelled in the realms of gold."

This is an example of  Hyperbaton / Inversion .

Hyperbaton / Inversion  is a figure of speech in which the grammatical order of the words in a sentence is inverted to secure emphasis. 

In the given example the grammatical order of the words  is inverted.The original order should have been  'I have travelled  much in the realms of gold. So, This is an example of  Hyperbaton / Inversion .

👉 Exclamation ( Figure based on Construction)

" But Alas ! Caesar must bleed for it."

This is an example of Exclamation.

Exclamation  is a figure of speech in which an expression of emotion, desire or contemplation is made generally introducing an interjection or the words such as how, what, etc.

In the given example  the speaker's emotion, a deep concern, is expressed with the help of the interjection 'alas'. So, This is an example  of Exclamation.

👉  Chiasmus ( Figure based on Construction)

" Beauty is Truth, Truth is Beauty "

This is an example of Chiasmus.

Chiasmus is a figure of speech  which  consists in an inversion of  the order of words or phrases when repeated in a sentence with a view to capturing emphasis or impressiveness.

In the given example the words 'beauty' and 'truth' are artistically inversed and the meaning  of the sentence become more impressive. So, This is an example  of Chiasmus.

 👉 Zeugma ( Figure based on Construction)

" The moment and the vessel passed "

This is an example of Zeugma . 

Zeugma is a figure of speech in which a single word (verb) stands in the same grammatical relationship to two or more other words but with an obvious shift  in its meaning.

In the given example the verb'passed' is related to two words 'moment' and 'vessel'. Separate verb should be supplied for these two words.  So, This is an example  of Zeugma.

"The Second Coming" of W.B. Yeats - Summery and theme of the poem.

The Second Coming

     William  butler  yeats

Turning and turning in the widening gyre   

The falcon cannot hear the falconer;

Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;

Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,

The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere   

The ceremony of innocence is drowned;

The best lack all conviction, while the worst   

Are full of passionate intensity.

Surely some revelation is at hand;

Surely the Second Coming is at hand.   

The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out   

When a vast image out of Spiritus Mundi

Troubles my sight: somewhere in sands of the desert   

A shape with lion body and the head of a man,   

A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun,   

Is moving its slow thighs, while all about it   

Reel shadows of the indignant desert birds.   

The darkness drops again; but now I know   

That twenty centuries of stony sleep

Were vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle,   

And what rough beast, its hour come round at last,   

Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born?

Introduction :

W.B.Yeats was born on 13th June, 1865 in Dublin, now capital of Ireland.From his childhood he experienced the atmosphere of both the urban and rural areas as he lived with his grandparents and uncle at Sligo ( a seaside area ), a typical Irish rural world  and with his father in London, the center of colonial Britain. Yeats may be considered as the greatest Irish writer - a poet, a dramatist, folklorist, anthropologist and theatre-manager. Though he was a versatile writer, he is remembered mostly for his celebrated poems in numerous volume/numbers.This poem "The Second Coming" is a famous poem in both historical and religious point of view.

Summary: A falcon is flying in a circular/spiral form in the sky and it flies in such a height and extent that it can not hear the commands of its master    (falconer)   and goes beyond the control. Things of this world have lost the integrity and the center or the controlling point can not maintain the balance. Only anarchy goes rampant everywhere on this earth resulting blood-tide through cruelty and devastation. The activities of the innocent people get no recognition, naturally drowned. The best people of the world lack all their conviction for the present chaotic situation and the worst ones are full of passion and enthusiasm for bringing about the heinous effects.

        The poet hopes that some revelation is impending, and at the very next moment he is sure of the second coming  of God. The poet visualizes that a vast image is coming out of the 'spirit of the world' (Spiritus Mundi). It troubles the sight of the poet. A vast image with lion body and the head of a man (a sphinx)

   is revealed  somewhere in the sands of the desert. Its gaze is wide (blank) and pitiless like the scorching sun. The sphinx is moving slowly(slow thigh) . All the desert birds of that area become indignant and flying above this rough beast, their shadows bearing the proof of it.Darkness covers the whole atmosphere. The poet thinks that the twenty centuries of stony sleep of the sphinx is disturbed in a nightmarish situation for the rocking of the cradle on which the beast had been in deep sleep. The question of the poet is whether this brutish rough  creature is slowly moving towards Bethlehem with an intention to be born for the second time at the appropriate hour.    

"Strange Meeting" of Wilfred Owen -- The Summary of the poem * The theme and message.

Strange Meeting

BY WILFRED OWEN

It seemed that out of battle I escaped

Down some profound dull tunnel, long since scooped

Through granites which titanic wars had groined.

Yet also there encumbered sleepers groaned,

Too fast in thought or death to be bestirred.

Then, as I probed them, one sprang up, and stared

With piteous recognition in fixed eyes,

Lifting distressful hands, as if to bless.

And by his smile, I knew that sullen hall,— 

By his dead smile I knew we stood in Hell.

With a thousand fears that vision's face was grained;

Yet no blood reached there from the upper ground,

And no guns thumped, or down the flues made moan.

“Strange friend,” I said, “here is no cause to mourn.” 

“None,” said that other, “save the undone years,

The hopelessness. Whatever hope is yours,

Was my life also; I went hunting wild

After the wildest beauty in the world,

Which lies not calm in eyes, or braided hair,

But mocks the steady running of the hour,

And if it grieves, grieves richlier than here.

For by my glee might many men have laughed,

And of my weeping something had been left,

Which must die now. I mean the truth untold,

The pity of war, the pity war distilled.

Now men will go content with what we spoiled.

Or, discontent, boil bloody, and be spilled.

They will be swift with swiftness of the tigress. 

None will break ranks, though nations trek from progress.

Courage was mine, and I had mystery;

Wisdom was mine, and I had mastery: 

To miss the march of this retreating world

Into vain citadels that are not walled.

Then, when much blood had clogged their chariot-wheels, 

I would go up and wash them from sweet wells,

Even with truths that lie too deep for taint.

I would have poured my spirit without stint

But not through wounds; not on the cess of war.

Foreheads of men have bled where no wounds were.

“I am the enemy you killed, my friend.

I knew you in this dark: for so you frowned

Yesterday through me as you jabbed and killed.

I parried; but my hands were loath and cold.

Let us sleep now. . . .”

Introduction:

"Strange Meeting" of Wilfred Owen , an anti-war poem , is written without any date in manuscript. There is the least doubt that this poem is written on few days before the death of the poet, may be in the last month   of poet's life. At this point we are to mention that Owen died a week before the end of the First World War.Wilfred Owen, one of the victims of the  First World War, was killed on 4th November, 1918. This poem was published in 1919. 

Summary of the Poem :

The soldier-poet imagines that he has escaped from the battlefield and entered a deep tunnel which was scooped long ago,in the time of the titanic war. In this gloomy tunnel a lot of dead soldiers are huddled together, so fast in sleep that they can not be bestirred. When the poet closely examines them, a soldier springs up and stares at the poet with doleful eyes, full of pity and pathos in a gesture of blessing.The face of the soldier is the epitome of thousand pains.But why ? His place is far from the battlefield and naturally no sound of guns, no moaning and mourning reach there and no blood can tickle in such depth. Actually, this place must be devoid of human sufferings.The strange soldier strangely says that his place is a place of utter hopelessness. He mentions about his undone works, the untold truth.Like the poet he had his own hope. He loved beauty, the wildest beauty , the beauty " Which lies not calm in eyes,or braided hair." Here the beauty is the truth, the truth that lies in the pity of war. It is " The pity of the war, the pity war distilled." His premature death has restrained him from saying the untold truth that he has learnt in the battlefield and it would remain untold for ever. War brings, he says, no glory, it brings pity:war can not be romantic, it is pathetic. Modern people hunker after blood,can not be abstain from war. None would move backward from the path of destruction :"None will break ranks," The picture of the chariot-wheels clogged with blood is not, at all, encouraging. Actually the war-mongers build " vain citadels that are not walled." The dead soldier wants to say that he does never advocate war, he wants no wounds, no cess of war. The best proof of it is that this very soldier is the enemy whom the poet killed . He would have killed the poet, but he did not, as killing  brings  no  glory : " I parried: by my hands were loath an cold. " The soldier requests the poet, "Let us sleep now ..... "

Explanations :

(1) " It seemed that out of battle I escaped." - The expression 'It seemed' indicates that the whole story in this poem is the product of dream or imagination. The poet's escape from the battlefield clearly hints poet's strong unwillingness and loathing for war. 

(2) " Too fast in thought or death to be bestirred." - The condition of the dead soldiers in the tunnel is meant here. They are dead and they can not be moved. It is quite natural. The soldiers are in deep thought, even after their death. This is the true state of mind of all soldiers of all nations and of all ages. They always think of the sinful ambition of the war -

mongers and the merciless butchery of the young generation, the future of the country.

(3) 'None' , said the soldier 'save the undone years, / The hopelessness. " 

       Seeing 'thousand pains' on the face of the dead soldier the poet asks the cause behind it. Is there any cause of mourning in that dead tunnel ? This line is the answer of this question. The soldier thinks that his years (life  in the world before death) are in vein. For his premature death he has not found time and chance to highlight the "pity of war', the pathetic and gloomy side of the war. He hoped to spread this truth throughout the world,but could not, and after death he is in the reign of 'hopelessness'. Nothing can be done now.

(4) "Which lies not calm in eyes,or braided hair, " 

        The dead soldier says that he used to hunt beauty before his death. It is not the beauty which is generally found by average people in the calm eyes and splendid braided hair of the beloved or any lovely woman. This beauty is the 'truth' (Beauty is Truth, Truth Beauty.)It is the 'truth untold' by the dead soldier regarding the 'pity of war' which the soldier had learnt in the battlefield.

(5) "The pity of war, the pity war distilled."

        Owen declares that his subject is war, and the pity of war.Being a soldier Owen does never glorify the heroic deeds, the exploits , in the war. War is no doubt horrible and when the 'horror' of the war evaporate we find pity as remaining element and essence of the war. Pity pervades everywhere, covers everything as it distills for every moment, every hour, all time to come.War leaves for mankind  only one thing  and that is 'pity'.