“The Listeners” by Walter de la Mare – Summery and Critical discussion.

Introductory  words :

 The publication of the poem “The Listeners” appeared as a magic in Walter de la Mare’s literary career, because the reading public could listen Mare’s  voice after its publication in 1912 and the poet comes to limelight. In this poem the poet has created a mysterious atmosphere and at the same time has told about the story of human beings. The opening line “Is there anybody there ?” is the eternal question of man in this earthly stage of life.

Summery of the poem:

In a moonlit night an unknown traveler comes on the back of a horse to a deserted house in a forest.      He knocks at the moonlit door and calls aloud: “Is there anybody there ?” The horse starts munching the grasses of the ‘forest’s ferny floor’ and  a bird suddenly flies out of the turret just above the traveler’s head. No response comes from the inmates of the house and the man again knocks and makes the same query. Nobody comes to open the door, none peeps through the window to identify the traveler. He stands ‘perplexed and still’. He starts feeling that a host of bodiless listeners stand on the dark stair and listen his call silently. An uncanny feeling seizes his mind  and he feels that the very silence is the response to his call. With nervous hand he knocks the door for the third time and calls even louder and leaves his message : “Tell them I came and no one answered/That I kept my word.” His words are echoed through the silence of the empty haunted house, but the phantom listeners make no stir and make no answer. The traveler rides on his horse and gallops away . The phantom dwellers listen the sound of the hoofs and silence gradually occupies the entire area. 

Supernatural Aspect :

There is an enchanting story in this poem of Walter de la Mare “The Listeners”. The poet has created a supernatural atmosphere with some word play and some suggestive strokes. The poet has kept everything in vague  that makes the mind of the reader curious . Fusillade of questions comes to the reader’s mind. Who is the traveler ? Where is the house situated?   Why is the house  deserted now?  What has happened to the inmates of the house? Why has the traveler come ? Why nobody responds ? A state of  imprecision pervades everything. This vagueness brings about a nebulous  atmosphere. The expressions like “forest’s ferny floor” and “leaf –fringed sill” prove that nobody dwells in the house now  and for this the front yard is covered with weeds like fern and the creepers occupy the sills of the window. It certifies the misty nature of the place. Above all, the sudden flight of the bird over the traveler’s head and the playing of light and shade through the big trees in the moonlit forest augment the eeriness of the atmosphere.

Central Theme :

The subject matter of the poem “The Listeners” hears like an uncanny story but the theme is not so common and simple. The poem provides us with a philosophical  idea, the very nature of human world. Beyond this human world there is the world of the dead which is called the other world. The dim house where the traveler has come represents the other world. The denizens of this living world sometimes come to the door of other world and knocks at the door. He tries to make a communication ,but in vein. The dwellers of that world also gather at a certain place, perhaps ready to communicate but no communication  is possible. Actually, a man wants to communicate with the dead world during his life time, desirous to probe the reality and to know everything of the dead world. But that is not possible as a fine barrier named ‘death’ stands between living world  and other world. The world of the dead is so near but it seems to be a far land.  The knock at the door in this poem may be interpreted as the knock at one’s heart. The nature of man is to  knock at the door of other’s  heart with some desired purpose but it seems unintelligible like a world  full of darkness, like the haunted house.

Symbol and image :

 The poem “The Listeners” is replete with some symbol and image. The deserted house is the symbol of the other world full of darkness. The traveler is the representative of human beings. The closed door symbolizes death. The silence stands for the coldness and quietness of the dead world.

Meaning of title:

In this poem the phantom dwellers stand on the dark stair, they listen every call of the traveler, they enjoy the disturbance in the silence but they make no response. Actually, they listen only , their duty is only to listen. So they are merely listeners. It may be that they are desirous to answer to the traveler’s call, but they have no power to respond as their duty is only to listen. It may be indicative that the denizens of the other world can listen everything of this living world, and they are merely listeners. The function of the listeners is adherence to the title of the poem. 

Father –son relationship between God and man is highlighted in the poem “The Pulley” written by George Herbert.

 George  Herbert was out and out a religious poet  of early seventeenth century. Right from his childhood Herbert’s mind was moulded in the righteous  atmosphere under the guidance of his pious mother. Later he became  a priest of the church of England and naturally his religious faith developed and heightened to a great extent. George  Herbert was Donne’s follower and he alone among Donne’s followers composed religious poems only, metaphysical verse concentrating on religious subject.

 

“The Pulley” ,  a short poem consisting of  four stanzas only ,five lines each, is written on religious theme. The poem projects the relationship between God and man, the father –son relationship obviously. God  is the supreme creator and man is the creation, man is soul and God is the absolute soul. God is all mindful and careful during the creation of man. He never wants any separation from man because both God and man would be losers if the link between them is detruncated. The thinking of God during the creation of human beings is the subject matter of this poem and the outcome of that thinking basically controls the life of this supreme creation namely man.   

 

God is the supreme father and man is his  beloved son. God keeps measureless love and grace for man that is proved during his creation. At that moment God was ready with the “glass of blessings”, with all choicest gifts of this universe, not to give man but pour on him. First of all the treasure of ‘strength’  God gave to man, then all the priceless treasures like ‘beauty’, ‘wisdom’, ‘honour’, ‘pleasure’ and so on flowed one by one to man. How lucky man was ! God was not at all parsimonious in bestowing the heavenly benedictions . Like a scrupulous loving father God kept the treasure of “Rest” at the bottom of the “glass of blessings”. No, it was not God’d  niggardliness, it was God’s deliberate plan. God kept the “Rest” at the bottom so that man could see it, could realize its existence, but could not touch it easily, in a word could hardly achieve the “Rest” in his mundane existence. If rest becomes unachievable in worldly state, there must have some ‘weariness’ and ‘restlessness’ on man’s part. What would be God’s purpose to push man towards ‘restlessness’ ?  

 

  The maxim that “God is good” is perpetual. The ‘absolute soul’ (paramatma) does not want any separation from ‘soul’(atma) . God  thought if “Rest” was attained so easily, man would indulge in enjoying “Rest”. Being contented man would forget all other benedictions endowed to him and  forget his creator also. Man would be loser, and God would  not be less loser. If man suffers from restlessness, man must remember God, must come to him for a respite, for removing his state of restlessness. If man surrenders himself to God, if soul (atma) mingles with ‘absolute soul’ (paramatma), the life of man on this world would become meaningful. The aura of God would protect all other gifts like ‘strength’, ‘beauty’, ‘wisdom’, ‘honour’, ‘pleasure’ etc. In such a state all these treasures would remain uncorrupted. Here one discovers the replica of a wise father in God. A wise father always gives choicest gifts to his son, but never gives all the money and wealth owned by him. If father gives his all to his son the latter would feel no necessity of his father and naturally would forget him very soon and easily. The earthly existence of man is surrounded by all the negatives forces like profaneness, darkness of mind and lowliness of character. When ‘restlessness’ would draw man to God, man would gradually become purer,  bathing in divine light. Man with mortal sins can not go back to his original home, the heaven. God with the device named “restlessness” draw man to him for the preparation for having “Rest”  that is not attainable in his mundane existence.

 

A pulley is a wheel, a sort of device to raise a weight easily from the bottom. The ‘lacking of rest’ or the ‘state of restlessness’ is equated to such a device (pulley) that would be used for lifting man from the bottom by the grace of God. If such a pulley is not arranged by supreme father (Param Pita), man would surely follow a downward movement,  the way of damnation. The benign father God wants otherwise, he wants his son  (man) to be soaked with  spiritual sap and divine light , to be enlightened , to glorify his father’s name . For this such an arrangement is made by God. “The Pulley” reminds us the story of ‘Pandora’, the first mortal woman,  who was given by Jupiter a wonderful box , “Pandora’s Box”, containing all benedictions packed. When the box was opened all the blessings slipped out , but not the blessing of ‘Hope’ as it was kept at the bottom in the box. So, the mortal being man lives with all hope that never finds ulence (maturation) in man’s life.

 

 

 

 

Ref: University (NSOU) study guide. 

The simple but unique symbols in “The Tyger” of William Blake bear spiritual message.

The social conscious poet William Blake is a mystic poet also and he feels the spiritual presence , the presence of God, in every  simple object of  the nature – in this Earth, in air, in water, everywhere. It is Blake who can find a world in a grain of sand and a heaven in a wild flower. Quite naturally, the lamb, the child and God are the replica of one another in Blake’s vision. The tiger, the most fearful animal of  the dark forest, appears to be a wonderful creature to Blake who finds a ‘fearful symmetry’ in the form of the tiger. The awe-inspiring figure of the tiger has made Blake visionary and he vents such words which lead us to a mystic and  spiritual land.

“The Tyger” is taken from The  “Songs of Experience” of William Blake. Experience is such a state that may easily lead one to the way of corruption,  where innocence finds no room.  God has created the fierce  animal tiger, in a particular time, for a particular purpose. Actually the tiger is the symbol for the wrath of God, that was keenly necessary in time of the spiritual crisis in society. We know that God is full of mercy, full of grace , full of grandeur ; but any  time if situation demands, God may be full of anger , manifestation of wrath, lord of destruction. Why would  God destroy something which he has so gladly created ? Actually he destroys the evil part of anything, not the thing created by him. God can not tolerate any type of degeneration and depreciation of religion. When  aversion to religion  becomes a part of  human beings,  a crisis  is inevitable. Like a strict and methodical father God projects his wrath to make everything in tune. The tiger  is the manifestation of that wrath by which God wants to revert those degenerated and fallen multitude. The  fierce force embodied in tiger is necessary to break the  citadel of corruption, the bond of experience. The tiger may be thought as the spiritual revolt. At this point one may  cite the manifestation of God in the shape of ‘Nrisingha’ (Face of lion on human body) as found in the Hindu mythology. When the oppression of Hiranyakashipu (a demon) crossed all boundary  ‘Nrisingha Avtar’ of God (Hari) manifested and killed the father of Pralhad (a steadfast devotee of Hari) with sharp claws and teeth of the lion. The creation of the tiger has some similarity with such  manifestation  of God’s destructive appearance.

 A prominent symbolic implication is found in the expression of “the forests of the night” that stands for ‘ignorance’.  A major part of society, numberless people of the earth, grapple in the darkness of ignorance,  are covered with superstition. Forest is a fine hiding place and night symbolizes   ‘darkness’ , Quite naturally, in the darkness of the forest one may lose the path and reach nowhere. This darkness is nothing but the darkness of man’s mind where righteousness finds no place. The ‘forest’ stands for the world of experience, such a world where man deliberately conceals the errors and dims the light. ‘Fire’ is a strong and meaningful symbol  in the poem ‘The Tyger’. The fire stands for wrath as in “Faerie Queen” Spenser wrote “wrath is fire”. The repeated  use of ‘fire’ suggests that the purpose of ‘wrath’ is to consume the errors. The stubborn beliefs can not be removed by  the mild and polite of instructions, fire is the only thing that can consume all the evils of society. Fire can purify the dross of the mind and society and establish   a new pattern of life.

To conclude, the symbol of “ Songs of  experience” automatically brings the reference of the symbol  of innocence, the lamb. God has created ‘the tiger’ only to make the place of the lamb ,the manifestation of God, permanent.Though the tiger is the wrath of God , it is for removing the religious crisis and   establishing a field of spiritualism.

Discuss after Alberuni the four periods of a Brahman’s life ( India by Al - Biruni ) .

 

Alberuni , a renowned philosopher and  historian of the medieval age , came to India with Mahmud of Ghazni in 1017.  He wrote a great book on India namely Tarikh Al-Hind (History of India) . What  he  saw in contemporary life , he inscribed  them in this  book . In his book   he has  portrayed  the social, political, religious and economic condition of the then India . His book is a very important source for medieval history of India . From historical perspective the value of this book is incomparable .The book India by Al - Biruni  is an english rendering of the original Arabic version of Tarikh Al Hind . This book is edited by the famous author Qeyamuddin Ahmad.

In chapter LXIII of India , Alberuni has discussed minutely about the life of a Brahman and his activities . According to Alberuni the life of a Brahman , after seven years from his birth , is divided into four parts . The first period of a Brahman begins at  the age of  eight  with the rite of Upanayan or Yajnopavita . It extends till the twenty-fifth year of his age or according to Vishnu Purana forty eighth year of his age .Upanayan is a religious tradition among the Brahmans that marks the acceptance of a pupil by a master ( guru ) . In this ceremony some Brahman masters  teach the Brahman boy his duties in life and how to embrace his duties till his death .  The boy receives  Yajnopavitas or sacred thread made of cotton . It is worn from the left shoulder across the chest to the right waist . Under any circumstances the Brahman boy is not allowed to separate himself from the yajnopavita . He is given a ring also , which he has to put on the right finger of his right hand . At this  stage his duty is to practice abstinence . He leads a life in austerities . He has to spend this period under the surveillance of his master . He makes the earth his bed and starts learning of the Vedas  as well as   science , theology and law . His master ( guru )  whom he serves day and night , teaches him all these subjects . He washes himself thrice a day and performs a sacrifice to the fire ( yajna ) at the beginning and end of the day . After the sacrifice he serves his master . He observes fast every alternate day .  Besides, he is never allowed to eat meat . He lives in the house of the master and everyday he goes outside for begging or asking for a gift , but he can’t go more than five houses a day for begging . Whatever alms he receives  he has to present it before his master at first  . His master takes what he likes and allows him to take the remainder for nourishment .  Further , he has to go to the forest to collect wood for the fire , especially for performing the fire sacrifice . Fire sacrifice is a pious ritual to the Hindus and they worship different gods in front of the sacred fire . For performing the sacrifice the pupil mainly collects wood from two types of trees : Palasa and Darbha .

The second period of a Brahman extends from the twenty fifth year till the fiftieth , or , according to Vishnu Purana from the  forty eighth year till the seventieth . At this stage he is allowed to get married  . He marries a girl , establishes a household and intends to have descendants . He is not allowed to marry a girl above twelve years . He obtains his livelihood or sustenance  by teaching Brahmans and Kshatriyas , sometimes by performing fire sacrifice for Kshatriyas or others  ( not as a payment but as a present or offering ) or by asking a gift from the kings and nobles . Some  Brahman  works as a purohita ; he carries out rituals of the households and provides advice on religious affairs . According to Alberuni , a Brahman lives from what he gathers on the earth or from the trees . He can do trade of clothes and betel-nuts but it is permitted to him only in dire necessity , when he has no other means of sustenance . A Brahman is not bound to pay taxes or performs services to the kings .He is generally  not allowed to look after horses and cows .  His chief duty is to worship before the sacred fire and recite holy texts .

The third period of the life of a Brahman extends from the fiftieth year to the seventy fifth , or , according to Vishnu Purana seventieth to ninetieth year .At this stage he practices  abstinence or self-abnegation  . He leaves his household , assigns all his duties to his wife ( if his wife does not prefer to accompany him in the life of wilderness )  or the children .  He lives outside the civilization , often near a forest  . He leads the same life again which he led in the first period . He neither takes shelter under a roof nor wears any dress . He only uses barks of trees to cover his loin . He never cuts his long hair , nor he  anoints  himself with oil.  He makes the earth his bed for sleeping . He nourishes himself by fruits , vegetables and roots .

 The fourth period of the life of a Brahman extends till the end of his life . Now he wears  a red garment and practises meditation .  From his mind he gives up the idea of friendship and enmity . He gives up all types of desires , roots out lust and wrath from his inner self . He does not converse with anyone at all . If he goes to a particular place  , on the road  he does not stop in a village more than a day , nor more than five days in a city .  At this stage his prime goal is to attain salvation or moksha – emancipation from worldly affairs .

Last but not least , Alberuni is a keen observer . He has observed everything of a Brahman's life in details , gathered various knowledge about Hindu religion and written all these things  accurately . Alberuni's division of a Brahman's life into four periods  is  same as the four Ashramas of a man's life that we find in the Jabala Upanishad . Though Alberuni has not mentioned anywhere the name of the four periods in his book  , he has described all the four periods of a Brahman's life  minutely and flawlessly .

Classification and Description of Consonant Sounds.

Classification :

In B.R.P. (British Received Pronunciation) there are 24 Consonant Sounds which may be described and classified in different ways : (a) According to the position of the vocal cords  (b) According to the manner of articulation and  (c) According to the place of articulation.

Position of Vocal Cords :

According to the position and movement of vocal cords the consonants are classified into two categories :  (1)  Voiced  and (2)  Voiceless.

Voiced : During the production of these consonants the vocal cords come closer and hang loosely. The  air passage becomes narrow. When the lung air is forced between the cords, they vibrate and the sound  produced  is called voiced sound.

 There are 15(Fifteen) voiced consonants and these are  /b/, /d/, /g/, /dʒ/, /v/, /ð/, /z/, /ʒ/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/, /w/, /j/, /r/.

Voiceless : Voiceless sounds are produced for the tightness of the vocal cords which go apart and does not hang loosely. The air passage  is not narrow. Naturally ,the lung air can go smoothly without making  vibration. Thus voiceless sounds are produced.

 There are 9 (Nine) voiceless consonants and these are   /p/, /t/, /k/, /ʈʃ/, /f/, /s/, /θ/, /ʃ/ and /h/.

Manner of articulation:

According to the manner of articulation consonants are divided into seven classes :  (1)Plosive (2)Affricate (3) Fricative (4) Nasal (5) Lateral (6) Semi Vowel and (7) Frictionless Continuant.

(1) Plosive – The two articulators make complete closure and then release suddenly causing an explosive sound. There are six plosives and these are :    /p/, /t/, /k/,/b/, /d/, /g/.

(2) Affricate - The two articulators make complete closure and then release slowly. We know two               affricates in English : /ʈʃ/ and /dʒ/.

(3) Fricative – The process involved in the production of these sounds is the close approximation. A narrow space is made between the active and passive articulators and the lung air passes through it causing audible friction. There are nine affricates , five voiceless and four voiced. /f/, /s/, /θ/, /ʃ/, /h/, /v/, /ð/, /z/ and /ʒ/.

(4) Nasal – The manner involved is complete oral closure. Mouth is totally  closed and the air escapes through nose and produce a nasal sound. There are three nasals : /m/, /n/, /ŋ/.

(5) Lateral – only one lateral consonant is  / l /. Partial closure is the process involved in the production of this sound. In the middle of the mouth an obstacle is formed and the air passes through both side of the obstacle.

(6) Semi Vowel – The stricture involved in the production of the semi vowel is the open approximation .   /w/ and /j/ are two semi vowels which are vowels for some features but function as consonant.  

(7) Frictionless Continuant. -  No audible friction is present during the production of this consonant. The manner involved in it is open approximation .  The sound  /r/ comes to this category.

 The place of articulation :

    According to the place of articulation the consonant are divided into nine classes .     These are – (1) Bilabial  (2) Labio Dental (3) Dental  (4)  Alveolar (5) Post Alveolar (6)  Palato  Alveolar  (7) Palatal                            (8) Velar (9) Glottal

(1) Bilabial  – Those sounds are called bilabial  in the production of which the active articulator is lower lip and the passive articulator is upper lip. There are four bilabials. These are /p/,/b/,/m/, /w/.

(2) Labio Dental – When the active articulator and passive articulator are lower lip and upper teeth respectively , the consonants are called Labio Dental. Only two such consonants are  /f/ and /v/.

(3) Dental – Dental consonants are those in the production of which the tip of the tongue touches the upper teeth. There are two dental consonants and these are /θ/ and  /ð/.

(4)  Alveolar -  When the teeth  ridge is touched by the tip and blade of the tongue, the sounds produced are called  alveolar consonants. There are six  alveolar consonants :  /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, and /l/.

(5) Post Alveolar -  /r/ is the only one post alveolar consonant. During its production tip of the tongue is the active articulator and back of teeth ridge is passive articulator.

(6) Palato  Alveolar  - Blade or front of the tongue touches the hard palate and the consonants produced in this way are called the palato  alveolar consonants. There are four such consonants  which are    /ʈʃ/, /dʒ/, /ʃ/ and /ʒ/.

(7) Palatal  - The consonant in the production  of which the front of the tongue is active articulator and the hard palate is passive articulator is called  palatal. Only one palatal consonant is  /j/.

(8) Velar -  /k/, /g/ and /ŋ/ are the three velar consonants in B.R.P.  These are called velar as the back of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum  in time of the production .

(9) Glottal – When  the vocal cords are both active and passive articulators,  the sound produced in that way are called glottal. Only one glottal consonant is /h/.

Description :

A consonant is described on the basis of three variables or points and for this it is caller Three Term Description . These three variables are  (1) Position  of  Vocal  Cords i.e. it is  Voiceless or Voiced. (2)Place of articulation  and  (3) Manner of articulation. Example s are given below  -

/p/ - Voiceless  bilabial  plosive  consonant.

 /t/ - Voiceless  alveolar  plosive  consonant.

/dʒ/ - voiced  palato  alveolar  affricate  consonant.

/ð/ - Voiced  dental  fricative  consonant.

 

A Few words on the SACRIFICES as pictured in Alberuni’s India

Alberuni, in his travelogue, has drawn a word-picture of the rites of the then India and naturally the point of sacrifices comes as a topic of discussion. Sacrifices to the fire was a common practice and most of the Vedas ordained it. Hindu  scriptures calls the fire  omnivorous i.e. fire eats everything. Whatever the fire eats, the fire reverts to the devas as fire comes out from the mouth of Devas. The offerings to the fire by the Branmans  are oil and different cereals like wheat , barley, rice etc. When the Branmans offered anything on their behalf they chanted some texts (mantras) as prescribed in the Veda, but in case of others’ offerings they recited nothing.

There is an interesting story of fire’s becoming leprous which the Vishnu-Dharma mentions. Hiranyaksha, a very brave and powerful ruler of a vast realm of the  land, was the man of the class of the Daityas. His daugher’s name was Dkish. This lady of the Daitya origin was engaged in worship for almost all the time and by dint of Fasting and Abstinence she earned a place in heaven as reward. Dkish was married to Mahadeva. When this newly married couple was cohabiting very long, the fire became jealous with some fear in mind. The fire was afraid lest the couple should procreate a fire similar to themselves. The fire determined to defile and also to ruin them. 

When Mahadeva saw the fire, he became wrathful and his forehead was covered with sweat some of which dropped on the earth and the earth drank it. Consequently, the earth became pregnant with Mars. Rudra the destroyer seized a drop and threw it which scattered in the interior of the earth, all atom like substance came into being. The fire became leprous and felt ashamed and being confounded it entered in the lowest earth, the Patala.  Devas missed the fire and they started searching. Some animals helped in that searching.

First of all, the frog pointed the location of the fire who then and there changed its place and took shelter in the tree “asvattha”. The fire also cursed the  frog saying that they must have a horrid  croaking and the frog would be odious looking. After the frogs, the parrots betrayed saying Devas about the hiding place of the fire . The parrots were cursed by the fire that the root of their tongue  would  be at that place where the tip of the tongue ought to be. The Devas , out of  love, spoke with the parrots and lightened the curse by saying that they would speak in human dwelling and would have delicate things as food. The fire tried hard to hide himself and fleeing from the “asvattha” tree  took refuge in the tree “Sami”. This time he was betrayed by the elephant which gave a hint to the Devas about the fire’s concealment. The elephant is severely cursed that its tongue would turn to be topsy-turvy. Deva’s benediction did go with the elephant that the latter would make out man’s language  and would also be fed by them.

After a long searching Devas found the fire but fire didn’t want to stay with Devas for his leprous shape. Finding no alternative, Devas restored the fire to health and the disease leprosy went away. Devas took fire back with honour and gave him a respectful position. Devas made him the mediator between Devas and mankind. From then, man offers anything to fire and the fire transports the parts to Devas then and there.    

Rites and customs practiced by the Non-brahmans as found in Alberuni’s India.

Alberuni came to India in the eleventh century. What he wrote about the then India is no doubt some genuine historical documents which can not be refuted. Chapter LXIVl of Alberuni’s “India” contains the description about the  rites and customs practiced by the Non-brahmans  of India in eleventh century.

 Beside the Brahmans there were three other casts namely Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. Occupation and the way of the functioning were strictly defined, any breach of it was a crime of grave nature. In the caste hierarchy the Kshatriya comes after the Brahman. They could offer fire and act according to the rules of Puranas, they could read the Veda and learn it , but they had no right to teach the Veda. The Kshatriya were assigned to rule the people and to protect them. After the completion of twelve years of age a Kshatriya hade to were a single cord of the threefold ‘yajnopavita’ and a single other cord of cotton. The Vaisya had another profession, particularly for their own. They cultivated the land and tended the cattle. They were allowed to gird himself with a single ‘yajnopavita’ made of two cords. The Sudras were very low caste and they were the servants of the Branmans. They were extremely poor and they did gird themselves with the linen .

 

The lower casts, the Vaisya and Sudra, were the victims of religious persecution. If they recited the Veda privily, they were acutely accused by the Brahmans before the ruler who readily ordered to cut his tongue off. The works of piety , meditation of God and alms-giving were allowed to them. Any sort of cross-occupation were not only prohibited , but also treated as a sin or crime. So a Brahman engaged in trade or a Sudra in agriculture was treated as almost the crime of theft. So, the regulation regarding the caste and occupation balance was strictly maintained.

 A strange story , may be anecdote, is related by Alberuni about a Brahman and a Candala. Generally, a son never died before his parents. It so happened that the son of a Brahman died before his father. The Brahman took the dead body of his child to the king and complained that such thing did never happen in that kingdom. Son’s death before his father’s was no doubt  an innovation for that country and this was due to some rotten and heinous act took place on that land. A thorough search made it confirmed  that a Candala  took severe and great pain in performing worship and in self-torment. On the banks of the Ganges the candela hanged himself with something with head downward. As soon as the king found him, he bent his bow and shot him to death. Quite ironically the king  uttered , “ I kill thee on account of a good action which thou art not  allowed to do.” Miracle happened when the Brahman returned  home, he found that his son was alive

  Beside the Candala all other men who were not Hindu were called Mleccha who were unclean, who killed men and slaughter animals and ate the flesh of cows. The Candal  and the Mleccha were humiliated and persecuted and were the helpless victims of social and economic discrimination. It would not be unfair if it is commented that to the eyes of intelligence all thing are equal, to ignorance they appear as separated and different.  A  vivid picture of social and cultural life in India in  Alberuni’s time is reproduced here as the historical documents. 

Ibn Battuta’s Travelogue : A page torn from the ancient history of India. ( The Court Of Muhammad bin Tughlaq )

 

Ibn Battuta , the greatest medieval Muslim traveller and the author of one of the most famous travel book, the Riḥlah (Travels) , came to Delhi in 1334  during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq . His account is not only  a strong historical document of the then India but  also the source of  valuable information regarding  political , social , economic  and architectural affairs of the medieval time . His  travelogue* is exuberant with  many valuable information about Delhi and the reign of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq  .

Information about Delhi:

 Ibn Batuta has said that the city of Delhi, a vast and magnificent city,  was a metropolis of India at that time . This  beautiful city  was fortified by an incomparable wall and this city, Ibn Batuta said, was the largest city of India , nay,  the largest city of the entire Muslim Orient  in fourteenth century. According to him , the city of Delhi was made up of four neighbouring and contiguous towns : Delhi proper, Siri, Tughlaq Abad, and Jahan Panah

1)  Delhi proper : This old city was built by infidels ( idolaters )  , which was captured in the year 1188  .

2) Siri (also known as the Abode of the Caliphate) : This city was given as gift  by Muhammad bin Tughl  to Ghiyath ad Din , the grandson of the Abbasid Caliph Mustansir of Bagdad .

3) Tughlaq Abad :  This city was founded by Ghiasuddin Tughlaq , father of the sultan of India ,  Muhammad bin Tughlaq .

4)  Jahan Panah : This city was built by sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq  ( Muhammad Shah  ) himself . 

With the intention of connecting  all these four cities together by one and the same wall the Sultan started construction  but after building some part of it  he abandoned the task because of the enormous expenses of the construction .

The accounts of the Cathedral: 

The cathedral mosque ( Quwat-ul-islam Mosque ) covering a large area  is made of white stone only, no sign of wood.  It has thirteen domes made of stone and it has four courts .  There is an awe-inspiring column in the centre of the mosque, nobody knows the component of it.  From reliable source it is known that  the material is called 'haft jush' , which means 'seven metals' with which the column is constructed.  A part of this column is very polished and it gives out a brilliant gleam.  The height of this column is thirty cubits and its breadth is eight cubits . At the eastern gate two enormous idols of brass are seen in prostate position  on the ground. Strange matter is that  everyone entering or leaving the mosque treads on them . An idol temple was there at this place but that Hindu temple was converted into a mosque  after the conquest of the city.

 Few words about Qutb Minar

 Now we are attentive  to know Ibn Battuta’s  information about Qutb Minar . A minaret , which is unparalleled in the lands of Islam , is situated in the northern court. No, not white, it is built of red stone . It is ornamented with sculptures and  famous for great height . There is a ball on the top of this minaret , it is made of shining white marble. The apples, the small  surmounting balls on the marble,  are made of pure gold . The amazing matter, reported by a trustworthy fellow, is that an elephant was climbing with stone to the top in time of the construction of the minaret . Sultan Qutb ad -Din wished to build another large minaret in the western court but his untimely demise stopped it incomplete. This minaret claims to be a wonder of the world for its size and shape and its  vast width   can accommodate three elephants  mounting abreast . 

A large reservoir :

Outside Delhi we find a large reservoir,  named after the Sultan Lalmish ( Iltusmish ), which is the main source of drinking water of the inhabitants and the rain water is the only source of this reservoir . This reservoir having two miles length and about one mile breadth looks beautiful with a great stone made pavilion, two stories high, at the centre of it .  Boats are used to reach the pavilion when the reservoir is full but  in low water  people can go  on foot . Inside the pavilion there is a mosque which is mostly occupied by the mendicants devoted to the service of God . When the water dries up ,  the place is cultivated with sugarcanes , cucumbers , green melons , and pumpkins.  This reservoir is situated between Delhi and the Abode of Caliphate . There are about forty pavilions along its side and many musicians live surrounding the reservoir. .

The  Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq:

Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq is fond of giving gifts and shedding blood . His court is never without some poor man enriched or some living man executed . Stories of his generosity and courage and of his cruelty and violence towards criminals are very popular among the people of his dynasty . According to Ibn Battuta he is a very humble man and he always shows equity and justice towards his subjects . He is a very religious person and if any courtier does not attend the prayer , Sultan punishes that person . Generosity is the chief quality of the Sultan .

The Sultan’s palace at Delhi is called Dar Sara . It has many doors  . There are a number of guardians at the first door , beside them there are trumpeters and flute-players . When any Amir or famous person arrives , they sound their instruments and say ‘So-and-so has come’ . The same thing takes place also at the second and third door . Outside the first door there are platforms on which the executioners sit . When the Sultan orders a man to be executed , the sentence is carried out at the door of the audience hall . The dead body lies there for three nights . Between the first and the second door there is a place where the guards sit and the principal naqib who is the keeper of the register sits between the second and the third door . There is a gold mace in front of the principal naqib . In his hand he holds that gold mace and in his head he wears a jewelled tiara of gold , surmounted by peacock feathers .

Transfer of the capital:

 One of the gravest charges against the Sultan is that he compels the inhabitants of Delhi to leave the city and go to Dawlat Abad . The whole matter shows Sultan's whimsical state of mind  as well as his cruelty on his subjects . According to Ibn Battuta , some rebel inhabitants used to write insulting and abusive language on something , seal those and inscribe on them : " By the hand of Master of the World , none but he may read this ." Then they threw them into the audience hall at night . When the Sultan found those , he read those and became angry . He decided to lay Delhi in ruin and thus wanted to punish those rebel inhabitants . He wanted the inhabitants should pay the price of this wrongdoings . Sultan commanded all the inhabitants to move to Dawlat Abad . At first all the inhabitants refused to go Dawlat Abad . After the herald of Sultan  proclaimed that no person should remain in the city of Delhi after three night . The majority of the inhabitants obeyed this order but some of them hid in the houses . The sultan ordered to find all the hidden persons . His slaves found two men in the street : one was crippled person and the other one blind . Sultan ordered that the crippled person should be flung from a mangonel ( a military device of medieval period for throwing stones and other missiles ) and the blind one should be dragged from Delhi to Dawlat Abad , a distance of forty days journey of that time  . The blind man died in the road , his body turned into pieces and what reached in Dawlat Abad was only his leg . Every inhabitant became very afraid of it . They left the town abandoning furniture and possessions and the city of Delhi became utterly deserted . Seeing the city in such a deserted state one day Sultan said ," Now my mind is tranquil and my wrath appeased " .   Afterwards Sultan ordered the inhabitants of other cities to move to Delhi and repopulate it .  The order of the Sultan left those cities in ruins too. People of different cities came in Delhi but it was not fully populated because of its vast and immense area . At that time Delhi was one of the greatest cities in the world . According to Ibn Battuta , when he came in the city of Delhi , he found the city was almost empty as it was populated by a few inhabitants . 

 

* A  person’s account of a journey to another country or place.

Critical appreciation of the poem “Uphill” written by C.G.Rossetti.

 

 

Uphill

Does the road wind up-hill all the way? 

Yes, to the very end.  
Will the day’s journey take the whole long day? 
From morn to night, my friend.

 

But is there for the night a resting-place?
A roof for when the slow dark hours begin.
May not the darkness hide it from my face?
You cannot miss that inn.

 

Shall I meet other wayfarers at night?
Those who have gone before.
Then must I knock, or call when just in sight?
They will not keep you standing at that door.

 
Shall I find comfort, travel-sore and weak?
Of labour you shall find the sum.
Will there be beds for me and all who seek?
Yea, beds for all who come.

About the Poetess :

Christina Georgina Rossetti (C.G.Rossetti) had   a strong religious bent from her early girlhood and it found expression in her poems. Not many poems she wrote, but that limited number  bears the testimony that Rossetti was a devout Christian who got inspiration from within, from her faith. C.G.Rossetti was the sister of Dante Gabriel Rossetti (D.G.Rossetti), the leader of the Pre Raphaelite Movement in the 19^th century. Rossetti is by far a religious poetess.

 

Critical appreciation:

“Uphill” , a devotional poem, was published in the” Goblin Market and Other Poems” and it is a product of Rossetti’s profound belief in God. This poem is a sort of ‘Catechism’ captured in rhyme and rhythm, as eight questions are asked and properly answered in this verse. Who questions in this poem? Actually, a person having no divine knowledge asks the question to a person who is divinely inspired. It may be a question-answer exercise between the ‘self’ and the ‘soul’. The poet’s self may involve with her conscience in this question-answer series. However, this Catechism is performed in a clear mental state, a state touched with spiritualism.

The life of human being may be equated with uphill journey that involves a hard labour for whole day, from morning to night: “From morn to night, my friend.” After the hard montane  journey a person finds an inn for taking rest, he also gets chance to meet the other travellers who have reached the inn before that person. He is readily welcomed in the inn, is not detained at the door of the inn. This weak and travel sore traveller is provided with comfortable and warm bed at the resting place. This is the story of human life. The eternal question of a human being is what is in store in our life at the ultimate moment , the end of our life. This may not be the quest of a person who is too much addicted to this mundane matters, who has drunk the crude and blatant life to the lee. Those persons who are thoroughly consumerist have no time ‘to stand and stare’ and search and feel the true objective of human life. The question must dawn in that mind which is, at least, soaked with the heavenly sap.

The poem “Uphill” has dispelled some questions of some pendulous minds. To confer the allegorical meaning the poet has taken help of some symbols which are very  clear in meaning and common in use. ‘Uphill’ stands for the ‘life of human being’, ‘day’s journey’ means ‘the whole life’, ‘morn’ and ‘night’ symbolize ‘the birth’ and ‘the death’ respectively. ‘Dark hour’ is nothing but the ‘death’ and ‘inn’ stands for the ‘heavenly abode’. The term ‘other wayfarers’ symbolizes ‘those person who died before’ and ‘comfort’ stands for ‘the peace of the departed soul’. Here ‘bed’ is not the ordinary bed, it is the ‘resting place’ in paradise and the ‘lap of God’ for those who have earned good fortune by following the path paved by the true religious regulation.

The poetess who is full of optimism, a true credent of our ‘divine father’, the God has not desponded us, she has rather kindled our mind with the bright ray of divine hope. The interesting point is that  a righteous person starts attaining the grace of God even in this life ‘when the slow dark hours begin’, in time of our death and we can clearly see from distance the sight of the inn. Above all, God ,our original father, the ‘Parampita’, is always  ready to accept us and for this our entrance to heaven is not delayed or obstructed. Our beds which we once left in heaven for the sojourn in this world are kept intact and we are allotted those beds as soon as we step to heaven. Getting back our beds on which we were wonted to sleep we regain comfort and peace beyond measure.   

Critical Comments:

This poem is not long, but in this little stature it makes us know about the philosophy of life with the help of some simple images. The image of hilly road, of the resting place, of the moving wayfarers and their travel-sore condition are very accurate . The images serve in some way the allegorical aspects. Here the travelers are  the pilgrims of life and the uphill journey is  allegorically the journey of the life of human beings.